TECHNOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF CEMENT MATRIX DETERIORATION IN CONCRETE FLOORINGS OF CATTLE BUILDINGS UNDER MANURE EXPOSURE: A REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59957/jctm.v61.i6.2026.11Keywords:
cement matrix, concrete deterioration, aggressive environment, sulfate attack, microbiologically induced corrosion, calcium leaching, cement-based materialsAbstract
Concrete floorings in cattle buildings are operated in an environment where the load - bearing capacity of the material is related not only to compressive strength but also to the resistance of the cement matrix to manure, urine, moisture, organic acids, sulfate compounds, microbiological activity and mechanical abrasion. In this review, a technological assessment of the main mechanisms of concrete deterioration under contact with an aggressive livestock environment is provided and the requirements for suitable concrete and cement systems are summarized. Publications, standards and applied studies related to concrete floors, cement matrix, organic acids, sulfate attack, calcium leaching, microbiologically induced corrosion and innovative binder systems were analysed. The data
show that concrete durability in a livestock environment should be assessed through a set of indicators: compressive strength, water absorption, density, porosity, permeability, sulfate resistance, acid resistance, wear resistance and reinforcement protection. From a technological point of view, concretes with a low water - cement ratio, a dense structure, adequate compaction and curing, as well as sulfate - resistant, slag, pozzolanic or alkali - activated binder systems, are considered the most justified. The main limitation in the literature remains the lack of long - term field studies in real cattle buildings where chemical, biological and mechanical factors act simultaneously.
References
D. Dinev, N. Delchev, V. Dimova, Agricultural Buildings, Stara Zagora, Academic Publishing House, Trakia University, 2017, ISBN 978-954-338-140-1 (in Bulgarian).
D. Georgiev, Test Rig for Investigation of Adhesion and Friction of Cow Hooves on Different Floorings in Industrial Dairy Farms, Stara Zagora, Academic Publishing House, Trakia University, 2022, ISBN 978-954-338-183-8.
C. Nilsson, Use of concrete for floors in livestock buildings, Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium Concrete for a Sustainable Agriculture - Agro-, Aqua and Community Application, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain, 2005, 25-32.
C. Phillips, Principles of Cattle Production, 2nd ed., Wallingford, CABI Publishing, 2010, ISBN 978-1-84593-397-5.
RÖFIX, Concrete Handbook, Fixit Holding, https://cdn.dam.fixit-holding.com/assets/api/fd2c2da5-098b-4611-a02f-155d5d8c0847/original/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA-%D0%B7%D0%B0-%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD.pdf (accessed 14 January 2026)
T. Koroudjex, H. Eskandari-Hadaf, Evaluation of the mechanical properties and microstructure of cement mortar with different cement strength classes using image analysis, Arab. J. Sci. Eng., 47, 2022, 4763-4783.
American Concrete Institute, Guide to Durability of Concrete, ACI Committee 201, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2021.
Dairyland Initiative, Dairy Housing and Flooring Guidelines, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2015, https://thedairylandinitiative.vetmed.wisc.edu/adult-cow-housing/flooring/ (accessed 6 March 2026).
A. Neville, Properties of Concrete, 5th ed., London, Pearson Education, 2011, ISBN 978-0-273-75580-7.
B. Amon, V. Kryvoruchko, T. Amon, S. Zechmeister-Boltenstern, Methane, nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions during storage and after application of dairy cattle slurry, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 112, 2006, 153-162.
M. Kiliswa, M. Alexander, Biogenic corrosion of concrete sewer pipes: A review of the performance of cementitious materials, Proceedings of the XIII DBMC International Conference, São Paulo, Brazil, 2014.
S. Larreur-Cayol, L. De Windt, A. Bertron, G. Escadeillas, Deterioration of cementitious materials by organic acids in agricultural effluents: Experiments and modelling, Waste Manage., 31, 6, 2011, 1183-1192, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.01.021.
C. Burton, C. Turner, Manure Management: Treatment Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture, 2nd ed., Silsoe, Silsoe Research Institute, 2003, 451 pp., ISBN 0-9531282-6-1.
S. Sommer, M. Christensen, T. Schmidt, L. Jensen, Animal Manure Recycling: Treatment and Management, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2013, ISBN 978-1-118-48853-9.
C. Rotz, Management to reduce nitrogen losses in animal production, J. Anim. Sci., 82, E-Suppl., 2004, E119-E137, https://doi.org/10.2527/2004.8213_supplE119x.
Vogeler, S. Thomas, T. Van der Weerden, Effect of irrigation management on pasture yield and nitrogen losses, Agric. Water Manage., 216, 2019, 60-69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.01.022.
G. Zhu, X. Ma, Z. Gao, W. Ma, J. Li, Z. Cai, Characterizing CH₄ and N₂O emissions from an intensive dairy operation in summer and fall in China, Atmos. Environ., 83, 2014, 245-253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.11.001.
C. Rose, A. Parker, B. Jefferson, E. Cartmell, The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology, Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 17, 2015, 1827-1879, https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761
G. Sassenrath, J. Schneider, R. Gaj, W. Grzebisz, Nitrogen balance as an indicator of environmental impact: Toward sustainable agricultural production, Renew. Agric. Food Syst., 28, 3, 2013, 276-289, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170512000166.
S. Sommer, J. Olesen, S. Petersen, M. Weisbjerg, L. Valli, L. Rodhe, F. Béline, Region-specific assessment of greenhouse gas mitigation with different manure management strategies in four agroecological zones, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 12, 2009, 2825-2837, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01888.x.
T. Yasmin, A. Jabeen, S. Iram, F. Arshad, M. Waheed, A. Hashem, G. Quezada, E. Abd Allah, Environmental impacts of livestock management strategies in subtropical agroecosystems, Cogent Food Agric., 11, 1, 2025, 2562171, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2562171.
T. Penev, K. Stankov, Effect of lameness on milk production traits in Holstein-Friesian dairy cows, Vet. Zootech., 70, 92, 2015, 53-58.
AgriTraction, Why barn floors are slippery, 2023, https://www.agritraction.com/why-barn-floors-are-slippery (accessed 26 March 2026).
V. Kardzhiev, Lecture Notes on Reinforced Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures, Sofia, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, 2011-2013, https://www.scribd.com/document/446873493 (accessed 8 February 2026) (in Bulgarian).
Ts. Krastev, Structural Mechanics, Sofia, Tehnika, 1990, https://eclipse.uacg.bg/catalog/view/LG7JYTN6MW (accessed 5 May 2026) (in Bulgarian).
Y. Simeonov, Construction Materials, Sofia, Tehnika, 1991, https://eclipse.uacg.bg/catalog/view/QRP81ELZ8G (accessed 5 May 2026) (in Bulgarian).
M. Nehdi, A. Soliman, Early-age properties of concrete: Overview of fundamental concepts and state-of-the-art research, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Constr. Mater., 164, 2, 2011, 57-77, https://doi.org/10.1680/coma.900040.
M. Thomas, Supplementary Cementing Materials in Concrete, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1201/b14493.
X. Flotats, Emissions (I): How are greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions produced on our farms?, Pig333, 12 June 2023, https://www.3tres3.com/en/articles/how-are-ghg-and-ammonia-emissions-produced-on-farms_19357 (accessed 5 April 2026).
Z. Gao, L. Zhi, Y. Yang, W. Ma, W. Liao, J. Li, Y. Cao, M. Roelcke, Greenhouse gas emissions from the enteric fermentation and manure storage of dairy and beef cattle in China during 1961-2010, Environ. Res., 135, 2014, 111-119, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.08.033.
J. Monteny, E. Vincke, A. Beeldens, N. De Belie, L. Taerwe, D. Van Gemert, W. Verstraete, Chemical, microbiological and in situ test methods for biogenic sulfuric acid corrosion of concrete, Cem. Concr. Res., 30, 4, 2000, 623-634.
E. Hewayde, M. Nehdi, E. Allouche, G. Nakhla, Effect of mixture design parameters and wetting-drying cycles on resistance of concrete to sulfuric acid attack, J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 19, 2, 2007, 155-163, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:2(155).
I.M. Elgendy, N.E. Elkaliny, H.M. Saleh, G.O. Darwish, M.M. Almostafa, K. Metwally, G. Yahya, Y.A.-G. Mahmoud, Bacteria-powered self-healing concrete: Breakthroughs, challenges, and future prospects, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 52, 2025, kuae051, https://doi.org/10.1093/jimb/kuae051.
N. Banthia, R. Gupta, Influence of polypropylene fiber geometry on plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res., 36, 7, 2006, 1263-1267.
M. Krstic, J. Davalos, E. Rossi, S. Chaves Figueiredo, O. Copuroglu, Freeze-thaw resistance and air-void analysis of concrete with recycled glass-pozzolan using X-ray micro-tomography, Materials, 14, 1, 2021, 154, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010154.
L. De Windt, A. Bertron, S. Larreur-Cayol, G. Escadeillas, Interactions between hydrated cement paste and organic acids: Thermodynamic data and speciation modeling, Cem. Concr. Res., 69, 2015, 25-36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.12.001.
C. Voegel, A. Bertron, B. Erable, Biodeterioration of cementitious materials in biogas digester, Mater. Tech., 103, 2, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1051/mattech/2015023.
P. Woyciechowski, P. Wolinski, G. Adamczewski, Prediction of carbonation progress in concrete containing calcareous fly ash co-binder, Materials, 12, 17, 2019, 2665, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12172665.
Chromková, R. Čechmánek, Effect of agents of organic origin on concrete degradation, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 379, 1, 2018, 012040, https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/379/1/012040.
S. Pavía, Study of the durability of OPC versus GGBS concrete on exposure to silage effluent, J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 20, 4, 2008, 313-320, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2008)20:4(313).
V. Assaad, J.C. Jofriet, S. Negi, G. Hayward, Sulfide and sulfate corrosion of concrete in livestock buildings, ASAE Annual International Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, 28-31 July 2002, https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.10471.
Z. Gong, D. Thompson, T. Aiken, D. McPolin, S. Nanukuttan, Resistance of ternary cement-based and alkali-activated concretes against silage effluent attack, Constr. Build. Mater., 457, 2024, 139439, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.139439.
V. Assaad, J.C. Jofriet, S. Negi, G. Hayward, Sulfide and sulfate attack on reinforced concrete of livestock buildings, ASAE Annual International Meeting, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 27-30 July 2003, https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.13870.
J.C. Jofriet, M. Abdelmseeh, S. Negi, G. Hayward, Deterioration of reinforced concrete in farm buildings due to sulfate and sulfide attack, ASAE/CSAE Annual International Meeting, 2004, https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.16796.
W. Sand, E. Bock, Biodeterioration of mineral materials by microorganisms - biogenic sulfuric and nitric acid corrosion of concrete and natural stone, Geomicrobiol. J., 9, 2-3, 1991, 129-138, https://doi.org/10.1080/01490459109385994.
A. Chikhi, R. Billet, H. Benaddi, M. Tidjani, T. Lakhemissi, A. Berkia, M. Hadji, Impact of aggressive environments on the mechanical and physico-chemical properties of concrete, Stud. Eng. Exact Sci., 5, 2, 2024, 1-22, https://doi.org/10.54021/seesv5n2-402.
P. Chindaprasirt, P. Kanchanda, A. Sathonsaowaphak, H. Cao, Sulfate resistance of blended cements containing fly ash and rice husk ash, Constr. Build. Mater., 21, 6, 2007, 1356-1361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.10.005.
M. Gebrehanna, R. Gordon, A. Madani, A. VanderZaag, J. Wood, Silage effluent management: A review, J. Environ. Manage., 143, 2014, 113-122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.04.012.
Chromková, R. Čechmánek, M. Krejčí Kotlánová, Effect of silages on concrete and process of its corrosion in the course of time, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2792, 1, 2024, 012013, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2792/1/012013.
J. Skalny, J. Marchand, I. Odler, Sulfate Attack on Concrete, London and New York, Spon Press, 2002, ISBN 0-203-34224-0
J. Trägårdh, F. Bellmann, Sulphate attack, in: Durability of Self-Compacting Concrete, RILEM Publications, 2007, 89-118, ISBN 978-2-35158-048-6.
M. Łach, A. Przybek, K. Setlak, P. Bazan, M. Hebdowska-Krupa, Resistance of low-emission geopolymer binders with fibers to aggressive external factors, Struct. Environ., 16, 3, 2024, 134-140, https://doi.org/10.30540/sae-2024-012.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
